## Memory management overview

The kernel's memory subsystem is implemented in `memory.c` and exposes three layers:

- **Physical Memory Manager (PMM)** – a bitmap-based page-frame allocator over a fixed-size pool obtained from the loader at boot.
- **Paging helpers** – routines to walk and extend the live 4-level x86-64 page tables, map/unmap virtual addresses, and translate virtual to physical.
- **Heap allocator** – a first-fit free-list allocator with block splitting and bidirectional coalescing, backed by pages from the PMM.

All three layers are wired together and brought up by `memory_init`:

```515:522:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void memory_init(BootInfo *Boot)
{
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"Initializing memory management...\n\r");
    pmm_init(Boot);
    paging_init(Boot);
    heap_init(Boot);
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"Memory management ready.\n\r\n\r");
}
```

---

## Physical Memory Manager (PMM)

### Design

The PMM manages a pool of 4 KiB physical page frames acquired from the loader via `BootInfo->alloc_pages`. It uses a simple **bitmap** to track free vs. allocated pages:

```27:33:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
static UINT64  pmm_pool_base   = 0;
static UINTN   pmm_total_pages = 0;
static UINTN   pmm_free_count  = 0;
static UINT8   pmm_bitmap[PMM_POOL_PAGES / 8];
static BOOLEAN pmm_ready       = FALSE;
```

Each bit in `pmm_bitmap` corresponds to a single page in the pool:

- **0** – page is free.
- **1** – page is allocated.

Helper functions manipulate these bits:

```37:53:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
static void pmm_set_bit(UINTN idx)
{
    pmm_bitmap[idx / 8] |= (UINT8)(1U << (idx % 8));
}

static void pmm_clear_bit(UINTN idx)
{
    pmm_bitmap[idx / 8] &= (UINT8)~(1U << (idx % 8));
}

static BOOLEAN pmm_test_bit(UINTN idx)
{
    return (pmm_bitmap[idx / 8] & (1U << (idx % 8))) != 0;
}
```

### Initialisation

`pmm_init` obtains the underlying page pool from the loader and prepares the bitmap:

```64:96:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void pmm_init(BootInfo *Boot)
{
    KSTATUS Status;
    UINT64 pool_addr = 0;
    UINTN i;

    /* Zero the bitmap – all pages start free */
    for (i = 0; i < sizeof(pmm_bitmap); i++) {
        pmm_bitmap[i] = 0;
    }

    if (Boot == NULL || Boot->alloc_pages == NULL) {
        SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"PMM: page allocator unavailable\n\r");
        return;
    }

    Status = Boot->alloc_pages(PMM_POOL_PAGES, &pool_addr);
    ...

    pmm_pool_base   = (UINT64)pool_addr;
    pmm_total_pages = PMM_POOL_PAGES;
    pmm_free_count  = PMM_POOL_PAGES;
    pmm_ready       = TRUE;

    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  PMM : %d pages (%d KB) at 0x%lx\n\r",
               pmm_total_pages,
               (pmm_total_pages * PAGE_SIZE) / 1024,
               pmm_pool_base);
}
```

Instead of parsing the firmware's memory map, this OS delegates low-level page allocation to the loader via `BootInfo->alloc_pages`. The PMM then **sub-allocates** from this contiguous pool using its own bitmap.

### Single-page allocation

`pmm_alloc_page` scans the bitmap for the first free page, marks it allocated, and returns the physical address:

```98:116:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
UINT64 pmm_alloc_page(void)
{
    UINTN i;

    if (!pmm_ready || pmm_free_count == 0) {
        return 0;
    }

    for (i = 0; i < pmm_total_pages; i++) {
        if (!pmm_test_bit(i)) {
            pmm_set_bit(i);
            pmm_free_count--;
            return pmm_pool_base + ((UINT64)i * PAGE_SIZE);
        }
    }

    return 0;
}
```

The corresponding free operation validates the address and clears the bit:

```119:132:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void pmm_free_page(UINT64 phys_addr)
{
    UINTN idx;

    if (!pmm_ready) return;
    if (phys_addr < pmm_pool_base) return;

    idx = (UINTN)((phys_addr - pmm_pool_base) / PAGE_SIZE);
    if (idx >= pmm_total_pages) return;
    if (!pmm_test_bit(idx)) return;        /* already free */

    pmm_clear_bit(idx);
    pmm_free_count++;
}
```

### Contiguous allocation

For multi-page allocations, `pmm_alloc_pages` performs a **first-fit** search for a run of `count` consecutive free bits:

```134:163:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
UINT64 pmm_alloc_pages(UINTN count)
{
    UINTN i, j;
    BOOLEAN found;

    if (!pmm_ready || count == 0 || count > pmm_total_pages
        || pmm_free_count < count) {
        return 0;
    }

    for (i = 0; i + count <= pmm_total_pages; i++) {
        found = TRUE;
        for (j = 0; j < count; j++) {
            if (pmm_test_bit(i + j)) {
                found = FALSE;
                i += j;            /* skip past the used page */
                break;
            }
        }
        if (found) {
            for (j = 0; j < count; j++) {
                pmm_set_bit(i + j);
            }
            pmm_free_count -= count;
            return pmm_pool_base + ((UINT64)i * PAGE_SIZE);
        }
    }

    return 0;
}
```

`pmm_free_pages` simply calls `pmm_free_page` for each page in the range.

---

## Paging helpers

The paging layer operates directly on the current CR3 page table hierarchy and uses the PMM to allocate new page-table pages on demand.

### Reading CR3 and locating the PML4

```186:204:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
static UINT64 read_cr3(void)
{
    UINT64 cr3;
    __asm__ __volatile__("mov %%cr3, %0" : "=r"(cr3));
    return cr3;
}

static void invlpg(UINT64 addr)
{
    __asm__ __volatile__("invlpg (%0)" :: "r"(addr) : "memory");
}

static UINT64 *get_pml4(void)
{
    return (UINT64 *)(UINTN)(read_cr3() & PTE_ADDR_MASK);
}
```

- `read_cr3` returns the physical address of the current PML4.
- `get_pml4` masks off flag bits using `PTE_ADDR_MASK` and casts the result to a pointer, assuming identity mapping of low physical memory (as set up by the loader).

`paging_init` logs the initial CR3 value for diagnostic purposes:

```244:249:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void paging_init(BootInfo *Boot)
{
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  Page: CR3 = 0x%lx (identity-mapped by loader)\n\r",
               read_cr3());
}
```

### Walking page-table levels

`paging_walk_level` abstracts a single step down the PML4 → PDPT → PD → PT hierarchy:

```211:238:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
static UINT64 *paging_walk_level(UINT64 *table, UINTN index, BOOLEAN create)
{
    UINT64 *next;
    UINTN i;
    UINT64 page;

    if (table[index] & PTE_PRESENT) {
        return (UINT64 *)(UINTN)(table[index] & PTE_ADDR_MASK);
    }

    if (!create) {
        return NULL;
    }

    page = pmm_alloc_page();
    if (page == 0) {
        return NULL;
    }

    /* Zero the freshly-allocated page table */
    next = (UINT64 *)(UINTN)page;
    for (i = 0; i < PAGE_SIZE / sizeof(UINT64); i++) {
        next[i] = 0;
    }

    table[index] = page | PTE_PRESENT | PTE_WRITABLE;
    return next;
}
```

If `create` is true and the entry is missing, it:

- Allocates a fresh page with `pmm_alloc_page`.
- Clears it.
- Installs it as the next-level table with base address + default flags (`PTE_PRESENT | PTE_WRITABLE`).

### Mapping and unmapping pages

To map a single 4 KiB page, the kernel:

1. Decomposes the virtual address into PML4/PDPT/PD/PT indices.
2. Walks or creates intermediate tables.
3. Installs a PTE with the desired flags.
4. Invalidates the TLB entry with `invlpg`.

```256:285:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
BOOLEAN paging_map_page(UINT64 virt, UINT64 phys, UINT64 flags)
{
    UINT64 *pml4, *pdpt, *pd, *pt;
    UINTN pml4i, pdpti, pdi, pti;

    pml4i = (virt >> 39) & 0x1FF;
    pdpti = (virt >> 30) & 0x1FF;
    pdi   = (virt >> 21) & 0x1FF;
    pti   = (virt >> 12) & 0x1FF;

    pml4 = get_pml4();

    pdpt = paging_walk_level(pml4, pml4i, TRUE);
    if (pdpt == NULL) return FALSE;

    /* 1 GB huge page – cannot carve a 4 KB mapping inside it */
    if (pdpt[pdpti] & PTE_HUGE) return FALSE;

    pd = paging_walk_level(pdpt, pdpti, TRUE);
    if (pd == NULL) return FALSE;

    /* 2 MB huge page – cannot carve a 4 KB mapping inside it */
    if (pd[pdi] & PTE_HUGE) return FALSE;

    pt = paging_walk_level(pd, pdi, TRUE);
    if (pt == NULL) return FALSE;

    pt[pti] = (phys & PTE_ADDR_MASK) | flags | PTE_PRESENT;
    invlpg(virt);
    return TRUE;
}
```

Unmapping follows the same index computation but stops early if an intermediate table or mapping is missing or a huge-page mapping is in place:

```288:314:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void paging_unmap_page(UINT64 virt)
{
    UINT64 *pml4, *pdpt, *pd, *pt;
    UINTN pml4i, pdpti, pdi, pti;

    pml4i = (virt >> 39) & 0x1FF;
    pdpti = (virt >> 30) & 0x1FF;
    pdi   = (virt >> 21) & 0x1FF;
    pti   = (virt >> 12) & 0x1FF;

    pml4 = get_pml4();

    pdpt = paging_walk_level(pml4, pml4i, FALSE);
    if (pdpt == NULL) return;
    if (pdpt[pdpti] & PTE_HUGE) return;

    pd = paging_walk_level(pdpt, pdpti, FALSE);
    if (pd == NULL) return;
    if (pd[pdi] & PTE_HUGE) return;

    pt = paging_walk_level(pd, pdi, FALSE);
    if (pt == NULL) return;

    pt[pti] = 0;
    invlpg(virt);
}
```

### Virtual-to-physical translation

`paging_get_phys` walks the existing hierarchy without allocating anything, and supports 4 KiB, 2 MiB, and 1 GiB mappings:

```320:351:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
UINT64 paging_get_phys(UINT64 virt)
{
    UINT64 *pml4, *pdpt, *pd, *pt;
    UINTN pml4i, pdpti, pdi, pti;

    pml4i = (virt >> 39) & 0x1FF;
    pdpti = (virt >> 30) & 0x1FF;
    pdi   = (virt >> 21) & 0x1FF;
    pti   = (virt >> 12) & 0x1FF;

    pml4 = get_pml4();

    if (!(pml4[pml4i] & PTE_PRESENT)) return 0;
    pdpt = (UINT64 *)(UINTN)(pml4[pml4i] & PTE_ADDR_MASK);

    if (!(pdpt[pdpti] & PTE_PRESENT)) return 0;
    if (pdpt[pdpti] & PTE_HUGE) {
        /* 1 GB page */
        return (pdpt[pdpti] & 0x000FFFFFC0000000ULL) | (virt & 0x3FFFFFFFULL);
    }
    pd = (UINT64 *)(UINTN)(pdpt[pdpti] & PTE_ADDR_MASK);

    if (!(pd[pdi] & PTE_PRESENT)) return 0;
    if (pd[pdi] & PTE_HUGE) {
        /* 2 MB page */
        return (pd[pdi] & 0x000FFFFFFFE00000ULL) | (virt & 0x1FFFFFULL);
    }
    pt = (UINT64 *)(UINTN)(pd[pdi] & PTE_ADDR_MASK);

    if (!(pt[pti] & PTE_PRESENT)) return 0;
    return (pt[pti] & PTE_ADDR_MASK) | (virt & 0xFFFULL);
}
```

This function is useful for diagnostics and for checking assumptions about how the firmware identity-mapped memory before entering the kernel.

---

## Heap allocator

The heap allocator builds on top of the PMM to provide `kmalloc`/`kfree` semantics. It uses a singly linked list of **heap blocks** (`HeapBlock`), each containing metadata and a `size` field describing the payload.

### Initialisation

`heap_init` obtains an initial contiguous region of heap memory and seeds the free list with a single large free block:

```370:394:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void heap_init(BootInfo *Boot)
{
    UINT64 phys;
    UINTN  heap_size;

    phys = pmm_alloc_pages(HEAP_INITIAL_PAGES);
    if (phys == 0) {
        SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  Heap: failed to allocate pages\n\r");
        return;
    }

    heap_size  = HEAP_INITIAL_PAGES * PAGE_SIZE;
    heap_start = (HeapBlock *)(UINTN)phys;

    heap_start->magic = HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC;
    heap_start->state = HEAP_BLOCK_FREE;
    heap_start->size  = heap_size - sizeof(HeapBlock);
    heap_start->next  = NULL;
    heap_start->prev  = NULL;

    heap_ready = TRUE;

    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  Heap: %d KB at 0x%lx\n\r",
               heap_size / 1024, phys);
}
```

The allocator assumes that the physical address returned by `pmm_alloc_pages` is accessible via identity mapping, so it can cast it directly to a `HeapBlock *`.

### Alignment helper

Allocations are rounded up to a fixed alignment (e.g., 16 bytes) using `align_up`:

```361:364:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
static UINTN align_up(UINTN val, UINTN align)
{
    return (val + align - 1) & ~(align - 1);
}
```

### Allocation (`kmalloc`)

`kmalloc` performs a **first-fit** search of the free list:

```401:440:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void *kmalloc(UINTN size)
{
    HeapBlock *block, *split;
    UINTN aligned;

    if (!heap_ready || size == 0) {
        return NULL;
    }

    aligned = align_up(size, HEAP_ALIGN);

    for (block = heap_start; block != NULL; block = block->next) {
        if (block->magic != HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC) {
            return NULL;            /* heap corruption */
        }

        if (block->state != HEAP_BLOCK_FREE || block->size < aligned) {
            continue;
        }

        /* Try to split if there is room for another header + 16 bytes */
        if (block->size >= aligned + sizeof(HeapBlock) + HEAP_ALIGN) {
            split = (HeapBlock *)((UINT8 *)block + sizeof(HeapBlock) + aligned);
            split->magic = HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC;
            split->state = HEAP_BLOCK_FREE;
            split->size  = block->size - aligned - sizeof(HeapBlock);
            split->next  = block->next;
            split->prev  = block;

            if (block->next != NULL) {
                block->next->prev = split;
            }

            block->next = split;
            block->size = aligned;
        }

        block->state = HEAP_BLOCK_USED;
        return (void *)((UINT8 *)block + sizeof(HeapBlock));
    }

    return NULL;                    /* out of heap memory */
}
```

Notable details:

- **Corruption detection** – checks `HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC` for each block; any mismatch aborts with `NULL`.
- **Splitting** – if the free block is large enough, it is split into:
  - An allocated block of exactly `aligned` bytes.
  - A new trailing free block (`split`) with its own header.
- **Alignment** – the returned pointer is `sizeof(HeapBlock)` bytes after the header and aligned according to `HEAP_ALIGN`.

### Freeing (`kfree`) and coalescing

`kfree` marks a block as free and then attempts to coalesce with neighboring free blocks to combat fragmentation:

```449:486:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void kfree(void *ptr)
{
    HeapBlock *block;

    if (ptr == NULL || !heap_ready) {
        return;
    }

    block = (HeapBlock *)((UINT8 *)ptr - sizeof(HeapBlock));

    if (block->magic != HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC || block->state != HEAP_BLOCK_USED) {
        return;                     /* bad pointer or double-free */
    }

    block->state = HEAP_BLOCK_FREE;

    /* Coalesce with next neighbour */
    if (block->next != NULL
        && block->next->magic == HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC
        && block->next->state == HEAP_BLOCK_FREE) {
        block->size += sizeof(HeapBlock) + block->next->size;
        block->next  = block->next->next;
        if (block->next != NULL) {
            block->next->prev = block;
        }
    }

    /* Coalesce with previous neighbour */
    if (block->prev != NULL
        && block->prev->magic == HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC
        && block->prev->state == HEAP_BLOCK_FREE) {
        block->prev->size += sizeof(HeapBlock) + block->size;
        block->prev->next  = block->next;
        if (block->next != NULL) {
            block->next->prev = block->prev;
        }
    }
}
```

The allocator never returns memory to the PMM; all heap pages remain reserved for heap use for the lifetime of the kernel.

### Heap statistics

`heap_get_stats` walks the free list and aggregates total, used, and free bytes as well as block count:

```488:508:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void heap_get_stats(UINTN *total, UINTN *used, UINTN *free_mem,
                    UINTN *num_blocks)
{
    HeapBlock *b;

    *total = 0;  *used = 0;  *free_mem = 0;  *num_blocks = 0;

    if (!heap_ready) return;

    for (b = heap_start; b != NULL && b->magic == HEAP_BLOCK_MAGIC;
         b = b->next) {
        (*num_blocks)++;
        *total += b->size;
        if (b->state == HEAP_BLOCK_USED) {
            *used += b->size;
        } else {
            *free_mem += b->size;
        }
    }
}
```

These statistics are surfaced to the user via the `mem` and `memtest` commands.

---

## Runtime memory diagnostics (`mem` and `memtest`)

The `mem` command (in `commands.c`) prints a snapshot of PMM and heap state by calling `memory_print_stats`:

```525:562:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/memory.c
void memory_print_stats(BootInfo *Boot)
{
    UINTN h_total, h_used, h_free, h_blocks;
    UINTN p_total, p_free, p_used;

    p_total = pmm_get_total_pages();
    p_free  = pmm_get_free_pages();
    p_used  = p_total - p_free;

    heap_get_stats(&h_total, &h_used, &h_free, &h_blocks);

    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"Memory Statistics\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"================================================\n\r");
    ...
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"Paging:\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  CR3:  0x%lx\n\r", read_cr3());
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"  Mode: 4-level (PML4)\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"\n\r");
}
```

The `memtest` command runs a scripted set of tests that exercise heap allocation, heap free/coalescing, and PMM single- and multi-page allocation:

```306:379:/home/lochlan/Documents/Coding/c/os/commands.c
static void cmd_memtest(BootInfo *Boot, CHAR16 *Args)
{
    void *ptrs[8];
    UINTN sizes[] = { 16, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096 };
    UINTN i;
    UINT64 page;
    UINTN h_total, h_used, h_free, h_blocks;
    (void)Args;

    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"Memory Test\n\r");
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"================================================\n\r");
    ...
    /* --- Heap allocation test --- */
    ...
    /* --- Heap free test --- */
    ...
    /* --- PMM page allocation test --- */
    ...
    /* --- Multi-page allocation test --- */
    ...
    SAFE_PRINT(Boot, L"\n\rAll memory tests completed.\n\r\n\r");
}
```

These commands provide a convenient way to validate memory subsystem behaviour from the Starling Terminal without needing an external debugger.